Illustrations in Wind Energy Comes of Age

by Paul Gipe

Figure I-1. Wind turbines in juxtaposition to conventional power plants.
Figure 1-1. World Wind Generation.
Figure 1-2. North American Wind Capacity.
Figure 1-3. European Wind Capacity.
Figure 1-4. Major Centers of Wind Generation.
Figure 1-5. New Installations.
Figure 1-6. North American and European Wind Generation.
Figure 1-7. Interconnected Applications.
Figure 1-8. Clusters.
Figure 1-9. Rectilinear Arrays.
Figure 1-10. Linear Arrays.
Figure 1-11. Ridgetop Arrays.
Figure 1-12. Models of Wind Development.
Figure 1-13. Small Wind Turbine.
Figure 1-14. Stand-Alone Wind Machines.
Figure 1-15. Nomadic Micro-Turbine.
Figure 1-16. Hybrid Power System.
Figure 1-17. End of the Line.
Figure 1-18. Pumping Water.
Figure 1-19. Wind-Assisted Irrigation.
Figure 1-20. Wind Furnace.
Figure 1-21. Windpowered Transportation.
Figure 1-22. California Wind Capacity.
Figure 1-23. European Wind Generation.
Figure 2-1. Wind turbine under test at Denmark's Risø National Laboratory.
Figure 2-2. Danish Wind Generation.
Figure 2-3. 1993 Specific Price.
Figure 3-1. Government R&D Expenditures.
Figure 3-2. Market Incentives.
Figure 3-3. Danish Wind Turbine Exports.
Figure 3-4. Smith-Putnam.
Figure 3-5. AWT. R. Lynette Assoc.'s 26-meter (85-foot) Advanced Wind Turbine undergoing tests near Tehachapi, Calif.
Figure 3-6. FloWind Darrieus.
Figure 3-7. Lift Translator.
Figure 4-1. Rotor Diameter and Swept Area.
Figure 4-2. Goliaths.
Figure 4-3. Commercial Derivatives.
Figure 4-4. Nibe Twins.
Figure 4-5. Tvind.
Figure 5-1. Persian Panemone.
Figure 5-2. English Post Mill.
Figure 5-3. Multiblade Farm Windmill.
Figure 5-4. Flint & Walling Star Zephyr.
Figure 5-5. Wincharger.
Figure 5-6. 1980s Jacobs.
Figure 5-7. Technology Pathways for Small Wind Turbines.
Figure 5-8. Furling.
Figure 5-9. Micro Turbine.
Figure 5-10. Bergey 1500, An Integrated, Direct-Drive Small Wind Turbine.
Figure 5-11. Specific Rotor & Nacelle Mass for Small Wind Turbines.
Figure 5-12. Production Economies.
Figure 6-1. Rayleigh Wind Speed Distribution.
Figure 6-2. Increase in Wind Speed with Height.
Figure 6-3. Increase in Wind Power with Height.
Figure 6-4. Typical First-Generation Danish Wind Turbine.
Figure 6-5. Increasing Size.
Figure 6-6. Relative Size.
Figure 6-7. Sample Power Curves for 500 kW Wind Turbines.
Figure 6-8. Fayette 95-IIS.
Figure 6-9. Power Curve and Annual Energy Output.
Figure 6-10. Typical Specific Yields.
Figure 6-11. Equivalent Capacity Factor.
Figure 6-12. Availability.
Figure 6-13. Specific Yield in California and Denmark.
Figure 6-14. Horizontal and Vertical Axis Wind Turbines.
Figure 6-15. Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Configurations.
Figure 6-16. Experimental Three-Bladed Darrieus.
Figure 6-17. Bi-Blade Darrieus.
Figure 6-18. Technological Pathways for Medium-sized Darrieus Turbines.
Figure 6-19. Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine Configurations.
Figure 6-20. Typical Second-Generation European Wind Turbine.
Figure 6-21. Technological Pathways for HAWTs.
Figure 6-22. Specific Rotor & Nacelle Mass.
Figure 6-23. Carter 300.
Figure 6-24. Carter Sr. Wind Eagle.
Figure 6-25. Storm Master.
Figure 6-26. Windtech.
Figure 6-27. ESI-54.
Figure 6-28. Integrated Drive Train.
Figure 6-29. First Generation Drive-Train.
Figure 6-30 U.S. Windpower 56-100.
Figure 6-31. Vestas V27.
Figure 6-32. Bonus Combi.
Figure 6-33. Bonus 450.
Figure 6-34. Ship or Bulkhead Frame.
Figure 6-35. Taper and Twist.
Figure 6-36. Airfoil.
Figure 6-37. V27 Blade.
Figure 6-38. Rotor Blade Mass.
Figure 6-39. Overspeed Control.
Figure 6-40. WEG MS-3.
Figure 6-41. Pitchable Blade Tips.
Figure 6-42. Variable Pitch Blade Tips.
Figure 6-43. Ailerons or Flaps.
Figure 6-44. Utility-Compatible Wind Machines.
Figure 6-45. Dual Generators.
Figure 6-46. U.S. Windpower 33M VS.
Figure 6-47. Servicing Enertech E-44 near Palm Springs, Calif.
Figure 7-1. Wind Power Plant Price.
Figure 7-2. Operation, Maintenance, and Fuel Costs.
Figure 7-3. Relative Cost of Wind Energy in California and Denmark.
Figure 7-4. Relative Installed Price by Rotor Swept Area.
Figure 7-5. Effect of Installed Cost on the Relative Cost of Energy.
Figure 7-6. Levelized Cost of Electricity.
Figure 8-1. Thyholmer Pilsner.
Figure 8-2. Windmill Tower.
Figure 8-3. Urban Windmill.
Figure 8-4. Acceptance of Wind Energy.
Figure 8-5. Information Kiosk.
Figure 8-6. Power Plant Acceptance.
Figure 8-7. Acceptance Distance.
Figure 8-8. Power Plant Preference.
Figure 8-9. Tandpibe-Velling Marsk.
Figure 8-10. Box on a Stick.
Figure 8-11. Aesthetically Pleasing Designs.
Figure 8-12. Lattice Tower Shape.
Figure 8-13. Wind Turbine sans Nose Cone.
Figure 8-14. Visual Influence Zones.
Figure 8-15. Visual Clutter.
Figure 8-16. Visual Density.
Figure 8-17. Linear Uniformity.
Figure 8-18. Visual Units.
Figure 8-19. Non-uniform Tower Height.
Figure 8-20. Iconography of North German Plain.
Figure 8-21. Ancillary Structures.
Figure 8-22. Visually pleasing hilltop array.
Figure 8-23. Scarring from Road Cut.
Figure 8-24. Rhyd y Groes, Wales.
Figure 8-25. Ebeltoft Harbor.
Figure 8-26. Cooperative Membership Meeting.
Figure 10-1. Noise Contours.
Figure 10-2. Noise Footprint.
Figure 10-3. Source Sound Power Level.
Figure 10-4. Treating Trailing Edge.
Figure 10-5. Bonus Tip Torpedo.
Figure 10-6. Projected Noise Level.
Figure 10-7. Projected Noise Level from Bonus Combi.
Figure 11-1. Land Disturbed.
Figure 11-2. McVentis.
Figure 11-3. Dike Path.
Figure 11-4. Lunch Break on Pacific Crest Trail.
Figure 11-5. Wind Energy and Cropland.
Figure 11-6. Delabole Hedgerows.
Figure 11-7. British Road Construction.
Figure 11-8. Farm Track.
Figure 11-9. Unnecessary Grading.
Figure 11-10. Pleasing Ridge-Top Array.
Figure 12-1. Tourism at Delabole.
Figure 12-2. School Group at Ebeltoft.
Figure 12-3. Tourism at Zaanse Schans.
Figure 13-1. Solar Energy in California.
Figure 14-1. U.S. Wind Energy Potential.
Figure 14-2. Fiberglass Flowers.

-End-

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